CANCER TYPES

HEAD AND NECK CANCERS

WHAT ARE CANCERS OF THE HEAD AND NECK?

Cancers of the head and neck are a group of malignancies that originate in tissues of the mouth, lips, nasal passages, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), and salivary glands. Most head and neck cancers begin in squamous (pronounced SKWAY-muss) cells, which form the mucus membranes that line the surfaces of these tissues. Doctors call these cancers squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck. Other malignancies such as brain cancer and thyroid cancer are not grouped with head and neck cancers.

WHAT CAUSES CANCERS OF THE HEAD AND NECK?

There are two major causes of head and neck cancers, as well as several less-common causes:

• Tobacco: Smoking, using other tobacco products (such as chewing tobacco), and inhaling secondhand smoke are the leading causes of head and neck cancers. Tobacco use most commonly causes cancers of the mouth (oral cavity), lower portion of the throat (hypopharynx), and voice box. If you smoke and you’re diagnosed with a form of head and neck cancer, continuing to use tobacco will make treatment less effective.

• Alcohol: Heavy consumption of alcoholic beverages is the other major cause of head and neck cancers, especially those affecting the mouth and voice box. People who use tobacco and consume alcohol have a greater risk for head and neck cancers than those who use only one or the other.

• Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection: HPV is a common form of sexually transmitted disease.Certain types of HPV cause cancer of the oropharynx, or the middle portion of the throat, which is called oropharyngeal cancer. The incidence of oropharyngeal cancers caused by HPV infections is rising in the United States and some other countries.

• Exposure to  certain substances: People who are chronically exposed to wood dust, such as on the job, may be at increased risk for cancer of the nasopharynx, which is the region behind the nose and above the throat. Meanwhile, exposure to asbestos and synthetic fibers have been linked to cancer of the voice box, though the National Cancer Institute states that the increase in risk “remains controversial.” Studies show that people who work in industries such as construction, metal, textile, ceramic, logging, and food have increased rates of cancer of the voice box. Exposures to nickel dust and formaldehyde have also been suggested as possible causes of head and neck cancers.

• Exposure to radiation: Unfortunately, some medical treatments can cause ill effects later in life, including radiation therapy for some conditions, which can increase the risk for cancer of the salivary glands. Exposure to radiation in the workplace can increase the risk, too.

• Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection: EBV is a common infection that usually causes no symptoms, but can produce fatigue, headaches, and other ill effects in some people. It has also been linked to several cancers, including cancers of nasopharynx and salivary glands.

• Genetic disorders: According to the National Cancer Institute (NCI), genetic disorders such as Fanconi anemia can increase the risk of for precancerous changes that may turn into cancer.

• Ancestry: Chinese people and those of certain Asian ancestries have an increased risk for nasopharyngeal cancer.

• Paan (betel quid): In India, this combination of leaf and chopped nut is sometimes chewed for its caffeine-like and psychoactive effects.

WHAT ARE HEAD AND NECK CANCER SYMPTOMS?

The symptoms of head and neck cancer vary, depending on the tissue that’s affected. Here are just a few common symptoms of the major types of head and neck cancer. These symptoms can be related to other conditions, so they don’t necessarily indicate cancer. See your doctor if you develop these symptoms and they persist.

• Oral cavity: A sore on your lip or in the mouth that won’t go away; persistent oral pain; a white or red patch of skin on your gums, tongue, or anywhere in your mouth.

• Throat or voice box: Persistent pain when swallowing or in the neck or throat; ringing in the ears or hearing problems; trouble breathing or speaking.

• Nasal passages: Chronic sinus problems (such as infections) that don’t respond to treatment; frequent nosebleeds or headaches; swollen eyes; pain in the upper teeth.

• Salivary glands: A lump or pain anywhere in or around your mouth or neck that won’t go away; size or shape changes that affect one side of your face or neck, but not the other; numbness or weakness in your face.

HOW ARE HEAD AND NECK CANCERS TREATED?

The treatment plan a doctor recommends for head and neck cancer will depend on a number of factors, including the location of the tumor and the stage of the cancer (or how advanced it is), as well as the patient’s age, overall health, and preferences. Treatments for head and neck cancers include the following (which are often administered in combination):

• Surgery: A doctor may recommend surgically removing all or part of an affected tissue.

• Radiation therapy: This common cancer treatment uses beams of high energy to kill malignant cells.

• Chemotherapy: Another common cancer treatment, chemotherapy is the use of various drugs that directly attack and kill cancer cells.

• Targeted therapy: These new-generation drugs take aim at specific genes, proteins, or other targets that cancer cells need to grow. Tests are required to determine whether a patient will benefit from these highly specific drugs, which may cause fewer side effects than chemotherapy.

• Immunotherapy: This treatment approach strengthens the ability of the body’s natural defense network, the immune system, to identify and destroy cancer cells.

IS FOLLOW-UP CARE NECESSARY? WHAT DOES IT INVOLVE?

Follow-up care is necessary after treatment for all forms of cancer, and head and neck cancers are no exception. Your doctor will schedule you for routine follow-up office visits for examination and testing to determine whether your cancer has returned. Follow-up testing may involve blood tests and imaging tests, such as X-rays or magnetic-resonance imaging (MRI). If a patient required a stoma (a hole in the windpipe to allow breathing), the doctor will examine it closely.

TRIPLE-NEGATIVE BREAST CANCER

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the term doctors use to describe a form of breast cancer that lacks certain targets, known as receptors, that are present in most other forms of the disease. The majority of breast cancer tumors are made up of cells that have at least one of three receptors, which include:

• Estrogen hormone receptor (ER)

• Progesterone hormone receptor (PR)

• Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)

Cancer drugs are available that attach to these receptors like a lock and key, allowing them to kill the cells and shrink tumors. However, these drugs do not work in patients with TNBC, since the cells that make up their tumors lack these targets. TNBC accounts for approximately 10 to 20 percent of breast cancer cases. It is more common in individuals of African or Hispanic ancestry, younger women (under 40), and those who have a mutation in the BRCA1 gene, which can be identified with genetic testing and counseling.

How Is Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Treated?

Many breast cancer patients benefit from hormone therapy and drugs that target HER2, but these treatments are not an option for patients with TNBC. The treatment plan that a doctor recommends for TNBC will depend on several factors, including the stage of the cancer and whether the patient has the BRCA mutation. However, the primary treatments for TNBC include:

• Chemotherapy: The main systemic (meaning it treats the entire body) treatment for TNBC is chemotherapy, which is the use of drugs that kill cancer cells. TNBC tends to respond well to initial chemotherapy, but it is also more likely to come back, or recur, than other breast cancers.

• Other drugs: In some cases, certain other cancer drugs may be used to shrink TNBC tumors, including pembrolizumab (Keytruda), olaparib (Lynparza), talazoparib (Talazoparib), and sacituzumab govitecan (Trodelvy).

• Lumpectomy: In this surgical procedure, a doctor removes the tumor and a small amount of surrounding tissue from the breast. Nearby lymph nodes (small immune-system organs where cancer cells may be found) are also removed to determine if cancer has spread. Lumpectomy is also called breast-conserving surgery.

• Mastectomy: Removal of the entire breast. Lymph nodes will also be removed and examined for the presence of cancer cells.

 Depending on the stage and status of TNBC, the following combinations of treatments will be recommended.

Stage I-III triple-negative breast cancer: If an early-stage TNBC tumor is small enough to be surgically removed, lumpectomy or mastectomy are common treatment recommendations. Lymph nodes will also be removed and examined to check for the spread of cancer. Surgery may be preceded by chemotherapy with the goal of shrinking the tumor; in other cases, surgery is performed first, then followed by chemotherapy for the purpose of destroying any cancer cells that might be present elsewhere in the body. In some cases, doctors will recommend radiation after surgery, such as if the tumor is large or cancer is detected in the lymph nodes. Some patients may also receive pembrolizumab or olaparib.

Stage IV triple-negative breast cancer: In stage IV TNBC, cancer has spread beyond the breast to other tissues in the body. Chemotherapy is administered to kill cancer cells that have migrated away from the breast; common choices include anthracyclines, taxanes, capecitabine, gemcitabine, eribulin, and others. For patients with TNBC who have a BRCA mutation and whose cancer is no longer responding to standard chemotherapy, other forms known as platinum drugs (such as cisplatin or carboplatin) may be used. In other cases, drugs called PARP inhibitors such as olaparib (Lynparza), or talazoparib (Talazoparib) may be recommended. Patients whose tumors express a protein called PD-L1 are candidates for immunotherapy in the form of pembrolizumab, while others who have not responded to prior treatments may be offered acituzumab govitecan (Trodelvy). In some cases, surgery and radiation may also be options.

Recurrent triple-negative breast cancer: Recurrent breast cancer is a malignancy that returns after a patient has undergone treatment. In the case of recurrent TNBC, if the cancer is limited to the breast and doesn’t appear to have spread, but it can’t be removed with surgery, then the drug pembrolizumab (combined with chemotherapy) is an option for patients whose tumors express PD-L1. If tests indicate that cancer has recurred in other parts of the body, a patient may be offered chemotherapy or sacituzumab govitecan.

What Are Some Common Side Effects of Treatment?

Hair loss is one of the most common side effects of cancer treatment, which patients may begin to notice about two to four weeks after starting chemotherapy. New treatments such as cooling caps can help minimise. hair loss. For most people who undergo chemotherapy, hair starts to grow back about four to six weeks after the last treatment. Nausea and fatigue are common side effects in the first few days following each chemotherapy treatment. If doctors remove lymph nodes as part of surgery, or treat lymph nodes with radiation, they may be damaged in a way that interferes with proper draining of lymph fluid. This can result in a buildup of fluid under the skin that causes a form of swelling known as lymphedema. Your healthcare team can recommend treatments for lymphedema.

SOLID AND LIQUID TUMORS

What are the differences between solid and liquid tumors? Solid and liquid tumors are types of tumors that lead to different cancers. Both types describe cells that proliferate uncontrollably. However, while solid tumors form one or multiple masses, liquid tumors circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream. 

What are the differences between solid and liquid tumors? A solid tumor is a mass of solid cancer cells that grows in organ systems and can appear anywhere in the body, like breast cancer. Liquid tumors, on the other hand, are cancers that develop in the blood, bone marrow, or lymph nodes, and include leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma.

WHAT IS A SOLID TUMOR? 

When discussing cancer and tumor types, one crucial question often arises: What are solid tumors? This question is vital in the realm of oncology, and understanding it can significantly aid in comprehending various cancer types and their treatments.

A solid tumor is a mass of cells that clump together, unlike cancers of the blood, such as leukemia, which do not form solid masses. These tumors can be either benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). The type of tumor significantly impacts the treatment approach and prognosis.

Solid tumors are classified based on their origin in the body. They can originate in bone, muscle, or organs like the liver and lungs. Some common types include carcinomas, sarcomas, lymphomas, and gliomas. Each tumor types has unique characteristics and behaviors, influencing treatment decisions.

Understanding what are solid tumors is crucial for early detection and treatment. Awareness of these tumors’ symptoms and characteristics can lead to timely medical consultations, increasing the chances of effective treatment and recovery.

WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF SOLID TUMORS?  

Solid tumors are categorized based on where they originate in the body and the type of cells they contain. Here are the main types of solid tumors:

• Carcinomas: These are the most common type of solid tumors and originate in the epithelial cells, which cover the inside and outside surfaces of the body. Carcinomas include breast, lung, colon, prostate, and skin cancers.

• Sarcomas: These tumors arise from connective tissues such as bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, or blood vessels. Examples include osteosarcoma (bone), liposarcoma (fat), and leiomyosarcoma (muscle).

• Lymphomas: Although commonly classified as a blood cancer, some lymphomas can form solid tumor masses. These originate in the lymphatic system, which is part of the immune system.

• Melanomas: Originating from the pigment-producing cells in the skin known as melanocytes, melanomas are a serious form of skin cancer.

Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs), germ cell tumors, gliomas are some other types of solid tumors.

HOW MANY CANCER TYPES ARE SOLID TUMORS?  

Tight and gap junctions allow irregular and heterotypic cells to communicate in solid tumors. In contrast to liquid tumors, as cells expand, they create a “lump” known as a solid tumor, which often does not include pockets of fluid, pus, air, or other substances. Solid tumors can be non-cancerous, pre-cancerous, or cancerous. 

Solid tumors account for approximately 90 percent of adult cancers. They can appear in a variety of locations across the human body, including the breast, lung, prostate, colon, melanoma, bladder, and kidney.  

Examples of localized solid tumors: 

• Carcinomas, 

• Sarcomas,

• Lymphomas,

• Carcinosarcomas.

WHAT IS THE MOST COMMON SOLID CANCER?  

When considering what are tumors, it’s essential to differentiate between solid and liquid types. Solid tumors are those that form a tangible mass in the body, clearly what’s in between firm and fluid. They can occur in organs, bones, muscles, and connective tissues.

The ten most common solid cancers in the US are: prostate, breast, lung and bronchus, colon and rectal, urinary bladder, thyroid, kidney and renal pelvis, uterine corpus, oral cavity, ovarian.

Understanding solid tumor rules is crucial for effective cancer management. These rules involve diagnostic procedures like biopsies, imaging tests, and understanding tumor staging and grading. Treatment varies depending on the cancer type and may include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, or targeted therapy.

Recognizing the most common solid cancers and comprehending what are tumors, particularly malignant tumors, is vital in the fight against cancer. Awareness of solid tumor rules aids in early detection and effective treatment strategies, significantly impacting patient outcomes.

WHAT IS A LIQUID TUMOR? 

In the diverse landscape of oncology, understanding the distinction between solid tumors and liquid tumors is critical. While many are familiar with solid tumors, the concept of a liquid tumor might be less known.

Cancerous tumors can be broadly categorized into solid and liquid tumors. Solid tumors form lumps or masses in specific organs or tissues, such as in the case of breast or lung cancer. On the other hand, liquid tumors involve cancer cells that circulate through the bloodstream or lymphatic system, rather than forming a solid mass.

A liquid tumor refers to cancers that affect the blood, bone marrow, or lymphatic system. Unlike solid tumors, which form masses in organs or tissues, liquid tumors are characterized by the presence of cancerous cells in bodily fluids. The most common types include leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma.

Among the most common types of liquid tumors, leukemia is a prominent example, affecting the blood and bone marrow. Lymphoma targets the lymphatic system, and myeloma impacts plasma cells. Each type has unique characteristics and treatment protocols.

Treatment for liquid tumors may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation, and targeted therapies. The prognosis depends on various factors, including the type of tumor, stage at diagnosis, and the patient’s overall health.

WHICH CANCER TYPES ARE A LIQUID TUMOR?  

The primary types of liquid tumors or in a non-solid state, include various forms of blood cancer:

Leukemia: This type of liquid tumor involves an overproduction of abnormal white blood cells, which can hinder the body’s infection-fighting ability and affect organ function.

Lymphoma: This form of liquid tumor targets the lymphatic system, particularly affecting lymphocytes, a vital type of white blood cell in the immune system.

Multiple Myeloma: As a liquid tumor, this affects plasma cells in bone marrow, which are crucial for antibody production and immune response.

Diagnosing liquid tumors typically involves blood tests, bone marrow examinations, and sometimes imaging tests. Treatment plans vary based on cancer type and stage, and can include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation, and targeted therapy.

WHAT IS THE MOST COMMON LIQUID CANCER?   

Liquid cancer, a unique type of cancer, contrasts starkly with solid tumors that form in organs or tissues such as connective tissue or bones. The most common liquid cancers are types of blood cancer.

The most prevalent liquid cancer is leukemia. This type of cancer affects the blood and bone marrow, leading to the overproduction of abnormal white blood cells. These cells impede the body’s ability to fight infection and can cause severe health issues.

In contrast to liquid cancers, solid tumors, such as benign tumors or malignant tumors in connective tissue, are localized masses of abnormal cells. Benign tumors, unlike cancerous tumors, do not spread to other parts of the body and are often less serious